Horticulture

Definition and Branches of Horticulture

Definition of Horticulture:

Horticulture may be broadly defined as the Science and art of growing fruits, vegetables and flowers and crops like spices condiments and other plantation crops.

It is a science of cultivation of Garden plants.

The word Horticulture in derived from the Latin word Hortus meaning enclosure (garden) and culture - meaning, cultivation,. Thus Horticulture mans culture or cultivation of garden crops.

Branches of Horticulture:

Horticultural Science is the most distinct branch of Agricultural Sciences and call be divided into four different branches as follow.

A) Main Branches:

Sr. No.	Branch	Description
1.	Pamology	It deals with cultivation of fruit crops.
2.	Olericulture	It deals with cultivation of vegetable crops
3.	Floriculture	It deals with cultivation of ornamental flowers and land scaping.
4.	Fruit and vegetable preservation	It deals with the principles of fruit and vegetable preservation.

B) Sub Branches:

1.  Plantation and Medicinal plants.

2. Ornamental Gardening

3. Landscape gardening and

4. Nursery plant production 

Scope of Horticulture

There is a great scope of Horticulture. Horticulture production is less as compared and hence very high demand in market.

Present Status:

Horticultural crops constitute a significant component of total agricultural production of the country. These crops cover nearly 11.6 million ha area with a total production of over 91 million tones.

Area and Production of Horticultural Crops (1984 - 85):

Sr. No.	Crop	Area (Million ha)	% of total Area	Production (Million tones)	% of total production
1.	Fruits	2.54	21.93	23.76	26.00
2.	Vegetables	4.50	38.86	41.20	48.37
3.	Tuber crops	1.30	11.22	16.68	18.36
4.	Plantation crops	2.88	24.88	5.96	6.53
5.	Spices	0.36	3.10	0.77	0.84
	Total	11.58	88.37

Includes tea, coffee, rubber (The Hindu, Survey of Indian Agriculture 1988)

Though these crops cover only 6.7 per cent of the gross crop area, they contribute nearly 18.84 per cent of the gross value of agriculture output. In 1984 - 85 by exporting Agricultural produce to other countries we earned Rs. 2960 crores, and of these horticultural crops accounted for Rs. 1546 crores (52 percent). Horticultural crops contribution to the national income as per the data of Central Statistical Organization (1986) was improved from 15.91 per cent in 1970 - 71 to 18.84 per cent in 1984 - 85.

1. Increasing Investigation Facilities:

The agricultural sectors getting priority in the new five year plan outlay. There is definitely positive factor in keeping hope for bringing area under irrigation, Many irrigation projects, major and minor are in progress and many would be undertaken in near future. Number of percolation tanks is being constructed and new schemes.

2. Area Under Rain Fed:

Horticultural crops are not required the perennial irrigation.

3. Transport and Marketing Facilities:

It is obvious that horticultural produce is perishable and mostly consumed as fresh and need quick disposal after harvest.

4. Cold Storage Facilities and Preservation:

During peak period of a particular crop there is glut in market and prices realized are very low. This can be overcome by storing the fruits in cold storage. Many preserved products have export potential e.g. Jam, Jelly, Juices syrups etc.

5. New Techniques for Maximization of Production:

This helps in increasing the yield.
i) Use of Growth regulator and gurdling increasing yield by 50% in grapes.

ii) Use of growth regulators.

6. Availability of Cheap Labour:

 In India because of large population man power is easily available and as compared to other countries the labour is cheap which definitely help in keeping down the production cost.

7. Loan Facilities:

Many Commercial Banks and Government provide loans at low interest for the promotion of Horticultural Industry.

8. Sloppy, undulated land can be brought under cultivation by growing rain fed horticultural crops.

9. The average production of the Horticultural crops is more than the agronomic crops and therefore, the net returns are also more.

Importance of Horticulture

1. Per Unit Area Yield is High:

As compared to the field crops per hectare yield of horticulture crops is very high.
           
From an fruit area of land more yield is obtained e.g. paddy gives a maximum yield of only 30 q/ha, while Banana gives 300 to 500 q/ha, Pine apple 450 q/ha and Grapes 90 - 150 q/ha. In present shortage of food and scarcity of land by growing fruits more food can be produced.

2. High Returns per Unit Area:

From one unit area of land more income will be obtained e.g. Well kept orchard of apple, grapes and sweet orange can give as much as Rs. 25,000 per ha as net income.

3. A Free Grower/Labour Remains Engaged for the Whole:

An opportunity for maintaining labours throughout the year like the cereals where one cannot keep him self and employ the labours during the slack season.

4. Best Utilization of Waste Land:
           
Some fruit crops can offer best utilization of waste land crops like wood apple, custard apple, karonda, litchi etc. can be grown in such areas.

5. To meet the annual calories requirements of food per year one would have to cultivate about 0.44 ha of wheat or 0.03 ha of banana or 0.06 ha of mango for satisfying once need. Thus mango produces about 9 times more food energy than the wheat produced per unit area.

6. Raw Material for Industries:

Fruit farming is the base for several industries like canning, essential oils etc which in turn provide work for more people.

7. Use of Undulating Lands:

Fruit growing can be practiced in places where the gradient is uneven or where the land is undulating and agronomical crops cannot be cultivated. In Konkan region, mango and cashew are cultivated on large scales on hilly and hill back area.

8. Fruits and vegetables are the important energy giving material to the human body

Classification of Horticultural Crops

From time to time, horticultural crops have been classified into various groups depending on their growth habits, cultivation requirements, climatic needs and uses. Horticultural crops are popularly classified into the 3 broad divisions of fruits vegetables and flowers.

However, following points are considered to be most important basis for classification of the crops.

1. Classification Based on Growth Habit and Physiological Character.

2. Classification Based on Life Span of Plants.

3. Classification Based on Climatic Requirements.

4. Classification Based on Seasonal Basis.

5. Classification Based on Use of Horticultural Plants. 

*Classification of Horticultural Crops Based on Growth Habit and Physiological Character

Growth habit and physiological character e.g. herbs, shrubs, climbers and creepers

Examples:

Herbs: Ageratum, Lawn Grasses.

Shrubs: Nerium, Hibiscus,

Trees: Mango, Tamarind, Rain tree

Climbers: Bougainvillea

Creepers: Bignonia, gracillis. 

*Classification of Horticultural Crop Based on Life Span of Plants

Annuals (Seasonal):

Ex. Phlox, Mary gold.

Biennial:

Ex. Onion, Cabbage

Perennial:  

Ex. Roses, Tuberoses, Chrysanthemum.

I) Annuals:

From the name it is clear that the plants live for one season or less. Annual plant is one which completed its life cycle from germination to seed formation within one season and then dies usually as a result of complete exhaustion of its food reserve in the process of reproduction. Mostly they complete their life history in 3 to 6 months. They comprise of several of most beautiful and easily grown plants, widely varying in from habit of growth and colour. Annuals are very effective, grown neither in pots or in ground. Particular annuals thrive best in particular period of the year. The annuals are conveniently grouped according to season as follows.

1. Rainy Season Annuals:

They can stand more in rain than others and therefore grown to flower during rainy season. The time of sowing then would be from April to May in most places e.g. Mary gold, Aster, Salvia, Zinnia etc.

2. Winter or Cold Season Annuals:

The thrive and bloom best during winter. These are sown in September, October e.g. phlox, Antirrithium.

3. Hot weather or Summer season Annuals:

They are sown in January - February and blooming period is April, May e.g. Sunflower, Gailardia, and Zinnia.

I) Biennials:

These plants usually requires two years or at least two growing seasons with  more or less of a dormaint season or lasting season between two completed life                  cycle. Seed sown in spring or summer, and vegetative growth is completed in first year and in the following spring, flowering and fruiting takes place. Generally the period of growth is 6 to 9 months e.g. Gladioli, Dahlia. No hard and fast line can be drawn between annuals and biennials crops like turnip, carrot, cabbage and onion are classified as biennials.

II) Perennials:

Any plant that lives more than two years is a perennial e.g. Mango, Citrus. These crops are classified in to two groups.

i) Herbaceous:

Herbaceous perennials are those with more or less soft succulent stems. In Temperate climates the tips die off after seasons growth but root remains alive and produce new stem and tops on favorable conditions. In other words their tips are annual while ground parts are perennials lie many years and are classified as: a) Trees b) Shrubs c) Vines according to their habit of growth.

a) Trees:

Trees are upright in habit and stems take the form of central axis e.g. Mango, Sapota, guava, Mandarins etc.

b) Shrubs:

Shrubs have no main trunk but a number of erect or semi erect stems are seen but do not forms the main frame work e.g. Hibiscus, Rose, and Lantana Acalyphya etc.

c) Vine:

Both woody and herbaceous have stems which are flexible and not in position to keep their branches and leaves erect. They either spread on the ground or require some support whether alive or man made e.g. cucurbit vines, Grape vines, Passion fruit etc. 

*Classification of Horticultural Crops Based on Whether they shed Leaves during a Portion of Year

i) Deciduous:

Ex. Fig. phalsa, Apple, Guava, Ber.

ii) Evergreen:

Ex. Mango, Coconut, Papaya, Banana.

*Classification of Horticultural Crops Based on Climatic Requirements (Particularly Temperature)

Based on temperature requirements and response to different climatic conditions, horticultural crops have been classified in to three main groups and these are :

i) Temperate

ii) Tropical and

iii) Sub - tropical

i) Temperate:

Temperate plants are commonly found in cold regions enjoying a mild and temperate climate. These plants endure cold and go to rest or dormancy by shedding of all their leaves during winter e.g. Apple, Plums cherry and almond etc.

ii) Tropical:

Tropical plants are those which do not tolerate severe cold but can tolerate warm temperatures of about 1000F. Those plants need strong sunshine, warms, humidity and a very mild winter. They cannot stand far against frost e.g. Papaya, Banana and Pineapple.

iii) Sub - Tropical:

Sub - tropical plants like Orange, Litchi, Fig, Mango and cashewnunt are intermediate in character. They need warmth and humidity and can tolerate mild winters.

The above classification, based on climatic preference of plants, is more or less arbitrary and no sharp line can be drawn between these several groups. It however, indicates the broad difference in climatic needs of various plants. This does not necessarily mean that a plant belonging to one zone does not grow in other zones. For instances, annual crops of the temperate region like potato, knolknol and cabbage grow in tropical and sub - tropical regions also, but they come up well only in the winter season than other climatic zones. 

*Classification of Horticultural Crops Based on Season

Horticultural crops are also classified according to the season in which they grow best. In our country we have three main season.

i) The Summer season, which starts from March and lasts upto May.

ii) The rainy season from June to October and

iii) The winter season from November to February.

Rainy season crops are known as "Kharif" crops. These crops come up best when sown with the onset of monsoon in May, June. Vegetables like Snake gourd, Lady's finger, Chilies and Beans comes under the category.

Lupines are known as "Rabi crops". They are generally sown October, November.

Only a few annual crops thrive in the warm summer months between March and June in the plains. Leafy vegetables, cluster beans, Brinjal, Cucumber, and Gourds are the common summer vegetables. The popular summer season Sunflowers, Cooks comb, Rose, Zinnia etc. There are some vegetables like tomato, brinjal, beans and flowers like which grow all the year count, but they come up best when there is optimum season.

The yield of a crop is also dependent upon the time of sowing. Crops which are sown under rain fed conditions are entirely dependent on rain fed conditions for their survival and growth and therefore, have to be sown just at the right time. Any delay in sowing causes great harm to rain fed crops. Even crops like sunhemp yield their best when sown in a particular optimum season and give even half the normal yield if sown in the strong season

Classification of Horticultural Crops based on Use of Horticultural Plants

Use of Horticultural Plants:

i) Edible Plants:  i. Vegetables

ii) Ornamental plants: i. Fruits                                                           

Vegetable:

a) Vegetables Grown for Aerial Portion:
                                                           
1. Cole Crops: Cabbage, cauliflower
           
2. Legume Crops: Peas and Beans     
           
3. Solanaceous Crops: Tomato Brinjal           

4. Cucurbits: Cucumber, Red Pumpkin

5. Leafy Vegetables: Spinach, Methi

6. Salad Vegetables: Lettuce, Brocoli

7. Corn Vegetables: Sweet corn and Popcorn

b) Vegetable Grown for Underground Portion:

1. Root Crops: Beet. Carrot

2. Tuber Crops: Yam, potato.

3. Bulb Crops: Onion and Garlic

ii) Fruits

a) Temperate (Deciduous fruits):

1. Small Fruits: Grape, Strawberry

2. Tree Fruits: Apple, pear, Cherry

3. Nuts: Peach, Walnut

b) Tropical and Sub Tropical:
                                                                                               
1. Herbaceous Perennials: Pineapple, Banana

2. Tree Fruits: Mango, Papaya

3. Nuts: Cashewnunt, Aracanut

II) Ornamental Plants

1. Flowering Trees: Gulmohar, Neelmobor, Cassua

2. Road Side Trees: Neem, Baniyan tree, Rain tree

3. Shade Giving Trees: Rain tree, Mahogany

4. Flowering Shrubs:   Nerium, Hibiscus, Tagar

5. Foliage Shrubs: Thuja, Casurina

6. Climbers and Creepers: Petrea, Bignonia, Ipomea

7. Bulbous Plants: Canna, Caladium, Tuberose

8. Hedge and Edges:  Duranta, Clearadendron, Ageratum

9. Annuals: Pitunia, Ainnia.

10. Perennials: Chrysanthemum, Roses.

Deciduous Tree:

Fig., Guava, Apple, Karvanda

Ber, Sweet cherry, Pomogranate

Grape, Mulberry, Phalsa

Almond

Evergreen trees:

Aracanut, Dates, Coconut, Pineapple,

Banana, Jackfruit, Avocads,

Sweet orange, Mandarin orange,

K. lime, Mango, Chicku, Papaya,

Passion fruit, Cashewnunt

Classification of Horticultural Crops

1. Botanical Classification:

i) Annonaceous Plants: Custard apple, Bullock heart

ii) Citrus Plants: Sweet orange, Mandarin orange, Lime and Lemons.

iii) Cucurbitaceous Plants: Bitter gourd, Sponge gourd, ridge gourd, Snake gourd, Little gourd.

2. Ecological Classification:

i) Aquatic Plants: Lotus, Lily.

ii) Desert Plants : Dates. 

Soil Requirements for Horticultural Crops

Soil and climate are the important natural factors. Favorable combination of its, is essential for the production of Horticultural Crops. Little Human control is possible over unfavorable climatic and soil condition. All fruits and vegetables cannot be grown in all types of soil and climate. Hence zone wise cultivation is made.

A) Soil:

It may be defined as "Superficial earth crust" which functions as store house of reservoir of water and nutrient at the same time providing the necessary physical support to the plant".

A typical soil is heterogeneous mixture of different components which includes solids like minerals, living organism, water and air.

Properties of Soil:

Soil exhibits physical as well as chemical properties of which are mostly influenced by the mineral matter of the soil and by the size of soil particles i.e. Sand Silt and Clay.

Sand Particles:0.15 to 1 mm in diameter

Silty: 0.002 to 0.05 mm in diameter

Clay:  0.001 to 0.002 mm in diameter

On account of small size and relatively large surface area they exhibits colloidal property and are capable of increasing the water as well as nutrient retention capacity of the soil. In a typical soil there should be proper proportion of these soil particles. It is possible to alter the physical condition of the soil by adding organic to alter the physical condition of the soil by adding organic matters which improves the structure and texture of the soil. The soil which support the growth and production of perennial plants.

A) Physical Properties of Soil :

1. Soil Structure:

Soil structure should be uniform favorable for water penetration, soil aeration and drainage. Soil structure may be vary in different layers. Hence soil profile pits have to be taken and examined the structure.

2. Soil Aeration and Drainages:

Soil should provide good aeration and drainage. Soil aeration is necessary for growing aerobic organism in the soil to promote the metabolic activities of these organisms. Fruit and vegetable crops required well drained soils. Drainage is effected by the nature of sub soil. It affects the deep rooting capacity of the trees and drainage of the soil. In a good sub - soil trees can stand drought better, because of deeper root penetration on wet heavy soils with impermeable sub soil. Poor performance is observed due to poor aeration and inadequate drainage. Therefore, a well drained soil is essential. Extreme wet and dry soil should be avoided.

3. Water Table:

Availability of water at a certain depth in the soil that is called Water Table. High water table can give rise to water logging condition of the soil and ultimately the fruit and vegetable crops decline. Therefore, water table should be always below 2 meters throughout the year. High water table leads to por aeration and water logging condition. Rotting of roots may occurs due to prolonged water logging condition of the soil.

4. Soil Depth:

Extreme conditions of soils like very heavy (Clayey) and very light (highly sandy) with It accounts for at least half the action exchange capacity of soil. Whenever the soil contain more amount organic matter than there will be greater the yield of fruits and vegetables. Therefore soil should have more organic matters.

6. Soil Texture:

Fruits and vegetables crops generally required medium textured soil. Fine and coarse textured soil should be avoided.

7. Soil Temperature:

Soil temperature affects the root activity and is influenced by aeration and drainage. In cold soils, chemical and biological activities are slow and availability of nutrients like N.P.S. and Ca is limited. Nitrification would not start when the temperature is 40C. For successful growth of horticultural plants the soil temperature should be within the range of 26 to 320C. Due to low temperature absorption and transport of water and nutrient is adversely affected.
           
B) Chemical Properties of Soil:

1. Soil Fertility:

Moderate fertility in the soil is necessary with high amount of humus. Loam and sandy loan soils are not suitable for growing the plants. N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S are important elements required for growth and development of plants. Micro - nutrients like Fe, Mn, Zn, Bo, Cu, MO etc. are also required. Premature decline of sweet orange in Punjab is associated with the micronutrient deficiencies predominated by Zinc.

2. Soil Reaction :

Soil analysis is important to find out the and Chemical composition. Neutral reaction is favorable. The safe pH range is from 6 to 8. Saline and alkaline soils should be avoided. In alkaline soils, concentration of sodium salts above 0.1% is harmful; Boron is deficient in alkaline soils and is unavailable in acidic soils. Iron is available in acidic soils. Calcium and Magnesium are deficient in acid soils. K, Mn, Fe, and BO are deficient in alkaline soils. pH above 8.7 is considered as critical High sodium content of soils with high pH may have direct toxic effects.

3. Soil Salinity:

Information on salt tolerance is necessary to select salt tolerant varieties and to adopt proper soil management practices.

i) Salt tolerant Crops (6-8 mmohs / cm) :

Date palm, phalsa, Guava, Sapota, Fig, Grape, Anola, Wood apple, Ber, Chicory, Potato, Sweet Potato, Watermelon etc.

ii) Moderate Salt Tolerant Crops (3 - 6 mmohs/cm) :

Pomegranate, Grape fruit, Lemon, Apple, Pear, Plum, Beans, Cucumber, Brinjal, Garlic, Radish, Pea, Tomato, Turneep.

iii) Salt Sensitive Crops (1.5 - 3 mmohs/cm) :

Orange, Peach Avocado, Straw berry, Asparagus, Beet, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Palak, Leek, Lettuce.

In general, it may be stated that soils for fruit growing should be porous, deep and aerated. They should not be water logged, marshy, saline or acidic and there should be no hard pan at the bottom layers.  

Climatic Requirements of Horticultural Crops

Temperature:

Every fruit plant has a rarely well defined range of temperature to which it is tolerant and below or above which the plants of that variety are liable to be injured.

1. Minimum Temperature:

Plants cease to grow at the onset of sufficiently cold wealth or the exact temperature range varying with the kind of plant and its stage of growth and maturity. It is generally regarded that at stage of growth and maturity. It is generally regarded that at 320F or below the growth is suspended while above this it proceeds shed. The minimum temperature that one plant can endure maybe much lower than that which another will tolerate. Hardiness to the cold is not the absolute water content which brings about the hardiness but the latter is related to the form in which water is held by the tissues. The water in the plant tissues is usually held in three forms.

1. Fire water

2. Osatically held water and

3. Bend or colloidal held water

Plants containing larger amount of "bound water", are usually more resistant to cold is therefore, important for the grower not only to know what the minimum temperatures are in the region where he has to grow his fruit crops but also approximate minimum temperatures that the particular plant or crop will with and at different stages of growth.

It the minimum winter temperature in a region is expected to be very close to the freezing point, the grower should realize that though it is safe to grow all apples and pears an attempt to culture oranges and lemons is likely to be an utter failure. Similarly, if minimum temperature, is going to be low but not slow as to cause frost for a long period, he should understand that the culture of brings and Grape fruit would be safe but that of Mango will not be that safe.

2. Maximum Temperature:

Just like the minimum temperature, there is maximum temperature which the plant endures. This also various whith kinds of plant and its growth stage and maturity. Though the absolute minimum for the living protoplasm is very close to boiling point for most of the higher plants, the lethal point less some where between 110 to 1300F. A x number of growth processes are much retarded as temperature considerable under the so points. In tomatoes the flower fails to set fruits when the temperatures in shade rises above 90 - 1000F. It is also some times observed that if the flowering of Ambe Bahar in Santra is usually delayed i.e. sometimes the flowers appear in late February. The fruit set in these flowers is very low one account of higher temperature during that period.

Optimum Temperature:

It is somewhere between the minimum and the maximum temperature range, that plant or fruit can sustain its growth the range being usually narrower. This in known as Optimum Temperature.

3. Atmospheric Humidity :

Higher humidity and Higher temperature are favorable for growth of certain crops like Banana and Pineapple. It is usually observed that the Ambebahar fruits of santra and more juicy than these of Mrig Bahar probably due to the fact that the atmospheric humidity during the growing season of Ambebahar crop. Thus the atmospheric humidity effects that juiciness of the fruit. As regards to the fruits growing in higher humidity are less tasty and do not have good keeping quality, higher humidity, being congenial for growth of fungus bacteria and pests which may be harmful to the fruit trees.

4. Rain Fall:

The quantity of annual rainfall as well as its distribution plays an important role in the success of failure of fruit growing excessive rains occurring in short periods are generally unfavours to fruits as they load to water logging. Rains at the blooming period may was away pollens and thereby inhibit the pollination. In low rainfall regions to cultivation of fruits crops is difficult adequate and cheap irrigation facilities are not available.

5. Wind :

The wind causes damage to the fruit trees in several ways. High wind blow away the trees and break the branches. The situation exposed to wind causes a greater evaporation of soil moisture ant there by necessitating more irrigation. Hot winds at the time of blossoming may cause failure of pollination due to drying of stigmatic fluid and due to reduced activity of the pollinating insects. However, this damage can be reduced by planting wind breaks.

6. Hail:

Hail storms are very rare in Maharashtra. However, in northern India, the fruit crops are greatly affected by hail. They causes shedding of young fruits and flowers while maturing fruits become almost unmarketable.

7. Sunlight:

The sunlight is found to affect the quality of the fruit. Fruits exposed to sunlight are found to be better in quality as compared to those receiving loss of the sunlight. This is due to more quantities of carbohydrates prepared in the leaves. In Santra it has been observed that the fruits borne on upper half of the tree and consequently receiving more sunlight were found to be richer in Vitamins 'C' content. They also contained more sugars as compared to those on lower half of the trees. Fruits, constantly exposed to strong sunlight are likely to be 'sunbrant'. In places where the summer temperatures are high as in Vidarbha. Region of the State, the stems of the plants are likely to suffer from sunburn and as a protection against this, an application of Bordeaux paste is recommended. In tropical regions the sunlight is not a problem but in temperate regions care has to be taken that the trees receive enough sunlight for which it is necessary to train and prune the trees in a particular fashion. 

Propagation Methods in Plants

Plant Propagation:

Definition:

Plant propagation can be defined as controlled reproduction of a plant by a man in order to perpetuate a selected individuals, or group of individuals which is having specific values to him.

There are Two Method of Propagation:

1. Sexual Propagation

2. Asexual Propagation

Sexual Propagation in Plants

Multiplication of plants by using seed is called as sexual propagation.

Advantages:

1. The plant raised by seed is planted lived.

2. They are hardy with deep root system. So they are vigorous in growth.

3. The possibility is there to obtain change in seedling, the performance of which are better than their parents. E.g. mango variety like Alpahanso Dasharia.

4. The polyembryony. The phenomenon of propation of more than one seedling from a single seed, produce true to type, nuclear embryonic seedling which could be used as rootstock for uniform performance. E.g. Mango, varieties. Olour and bappakal. It is also common in citrus and jamun.

5. Seed propagation is necessary when vegetative propagation is unsuccessful or expenses e.g. papaya, coconut and Areca nut.

6.Exoplotaion of hybrid, vigor is possible only when when the hybrid s are multiplied in the first instance through sexual propagation although subsequent fixing of heterocyst is effected through vegetative propagation, e.g. Sapota ( Cricket Ball X oval ) and ratna Mango ( Alpahanso *Neelum ).

7. Roots stocks are usually raised by seed e.g. Rangpur lime and Jamberi for citrus.

8. When seedling is required in large number, seed propagation is the only easy mean e.g. Dry land fruit, and Forest spp.

Disadvantages:

1. When progenies are not true type an so they become inferior because in the commercial orchard, it is necessary to have uniform quality, growth and yielding capacities.

2. Choice tree or any hybrid trees cannot be perpetuated true to type by seed. (except in Apomixes )

3. Seedling has a long juvenile period. In crops like citrus, coca, and rubber. The seeds must be sown afresh. i.e. immediately after extraction. Many varieties are seedless.

4. Seeds loose its viability in short period
.
Seed Germination and Seed Propagation:

Seed propagation is necessary in the following cases:
i) Where vegetative propagation is unsuccessful or difficult or expensive.

ii) It is necessary for raising rootstock for grafting and budding. E. g Rangpur lime and Jamberi for citrus, khirni for Sapota.

In all such cases rootstock plants have to be raised through seeds mostly.

Seed Formation and Maturity:

Seed develops along with the fruit and reaches, full size and maturity when the fruit ripens. Hence seed should be extracted only from ripe fruit. Seeds gathered from immature fruit may not germinate to under favorable conditions and may loose viability more quickly than fully matured seeds.

Seed Storing:

Seeds should be normally stored in relatively dry condition at low temperature. Some seeds should be sown immediately after extraction. (Citrus).Other must be kept for sometimes depending upon the kind of plant. Seeds of most plant retain their viability longer when stored at a relatively low then at a high temperature. Hence store the seeds in dry, cool place. If exported to damp atmosphere, even after through drying seeds absorb moisture and rapidly deteriorate. Some seeds like close of apple, stone fruit loose viability if dried after harvest. They require to be kept moist and exposed o cold or freezing temperature, known as stratification to after ripen dormant and to modify seed coverings.

Dormancy:

It is term used to describe a seed that will not germinate because of any condition associated either with the seed itself or with existing environmental factors such as temperature and moisture.

Some seeds may even germinate within the fruit, e.g.  Jack, avocado, chow- chow, papaya, called as Viviparous germination.

Best Period:

Some seeds will not germinate immediately after harvest even if conditions are favorable. This failure to germinate is due to physiological condition. This is said to be the seeds are in the rest period or they require rest period after ripening period.
Seed viability and longevity:

Viability means the presence of life in the seed. Longevity refers to the length of time that seeds will retain their viability viability. Some seeds are short lived. (Citrus).

Pre – germination Seed Treatment:

1. Chemical (Acid scarification):

The purpose is to modify hard or important or impermeable seed covering generally soaking seed in concentrated sulphuric acid is an effective method. The time of treatment may vary from 10 minutes to 6 hour according to species. After treatment seeds are thoroughly washed in clean water to make them free of acid and then re sown immediately. i.e. the seeds of ber, cotton, Asparagus are treated with 50% concentrated H2so4. The seeds are soaked in acid for 3 to 5 minutes.

2. Mechanical (Scarification):

Seeds of a few species with impermeable seed coat. i.e. hard seed coat can be rendered permeable to water and gases their germination is greatly improved by mechanical scarification in taking care that seeds should be injured not be injured heavily. This can be achieved by

i) Placing the seeds between two sand paper doses, one station and other revolving.

ii) Passing seeds through machine that scratches the surface.

iii) Filling and notching to make the seed coat permeable to water.

iv) By use of harmer. E.g.  Lotus Anna.

3. Seedling (Boiled Water Treatment):

Pouring boiling water over seeds and getting it to cool gradually for about 12 to            
 Hour to soften dry and hard shelled seeds. E.g. Coffee, chicku, canna , Babul, Chillar,etc.This will lasten the process of germination.

4. Soaking in Water:

The purpose of soaking seeds in water is to modify hard seed coats, to remove inhibitors to soften seed and to reduce the time of germination. The time of soaking seeds in cold water depend upon the hardness of the seed coat. E. g Gulmohar, peas, beans, cassia tree etc.

5. Stratification (Moist Chilling):

Seed of many woody trees or shrubs are exposed to low temperature to bring about prompt and uniform germination. Stratification. Stratification has some benefit in softening the seed coats. The seeds are arranged in alternate layers of sand in shallow boxes for pits or trenches. This condition helps in rapid germination peach cherry, plum, oat, grapes.

Asexual Propagation in Plants

Asexual propagation or vegetative propagation refers to the multiplication or perpetuation of any plant from any vegetative parts as plant other then the seed.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:

1. The progenies are true to type like mother plant.

2. Vegetative propagation is the only alternate where no seed is formed or germination of seed is very slow or no viable seed is formed. (e.g. Banana, Pine apple and roses, seedless grape ).

3. Certain rootstock has the capacity of resisting or tolerating the adverse environment factors such as frost and adverse soil factors like salinity or alkalinity. E.g. frost resistance, foncirus trifoliate (Trifoliate orange ). Rangpur lime.

4. The ability of certain rootstock to resistant pest and diseases can be advantageously expected. An apple when grafted on rootstock like Merton 778,793 is resistant for wholly aphid.

5. Vegative propagated plants are generally dwarfed in nature than the seedlings. Dwarf trees facilitate pruning spraying and harvesting easy seedling. Dwarf trees facilate pruning, spraying and harvesting easy and more number of plants can be accommodated in a unit area.

6. To replant an undesirable existing tree either with reference to its quality or susceptibility to pests and diseases. The defect can be overcome easily by vegetative propagation through grafting or budding of desirable scion to the existence tree by top working technique.

7. Many plants are propagated by vegetative means because of the speedy easy of multiplication.

8. Novelty can be developed by grafting or budding on single plant many varieties. E.g. Roses.

9.  To convert inferior varieties in superior, side grafting in mango.

Disadvantages: 

1. Plant is not vigorous and long lived.

2. No new varieties are evolved or developed.

3. These methods are expensive and labourious and time consuming.

Plant Propagation by Cottage

Definition:

“Cottage is a method of asexual propagation in which a portion of any Vegative part such as stem, leaf or root is cut from the parent plant and is placed under favorable environmental condition to form roots and shoots, thus producing a new independent plant.”

A) Stem Cutting:

This is the most important type of cutting and can be divide into three types based on the nature of the wood used in marketing the cutting.
i) Hard wood cutting ii) Semi- hard wood cutting iii) Soft- wood cutting.
In propagated by stem cuttings, segment of shoots containg lateral or terminal buds handled under proper condition to develop adventitious roots and form independent palnts.

i) Hard Wood Cuttings:

E.g. Grape, pomegranate, fig, mulberry, Acalypa, Rose etc. This is last expensive and easiest method. Hard wood cuttings are not readily  perishable and may be shifted safely over long distance , if necessary. 
The cutting usually prepared during the dormant season and from the wood of the previous season growth.

ii) Semi – hard Wood Cuttings:

E.g. . Eranthemum. The cuttings are prepared from now shoot just after a flush of growth which is partially matured.

iii) Soft Wood Cutting:

E.G Coleus, pilea, alternanthea, etc. these types of cuttings are also made from succulent, herbaceous green plants such as carnation, portulaces, etc. These cuttings are always made with leaves attached to stem.

B) Leaf Cuttings:

In these type cuttings, the leaf blade, sometimes with petiole, is utilized in starting a new plant. In most cases adventitious roots and an adventitious shoot develop at the leaf base. The following are the various types of leaf cuttings.

i) Leaf Blade Cuttings:

The long tapering leaves into 2 to 3 pieces are inserted into sand, and after some time a new leaf from at the base of the piece. E.g. snake plant.

ii) Leaf Vein Cutting:

In this type of cutting the new plant develops from the leaf vein at the base of the leaf piece. E.g Begonia rex.

iii) Leaf Margin Cutting:

In this case new plants arise from foliar embryos in the notches at the leaf margin.

iv) Leaf Bud Cutting:

This type of cutting consists of a leaf blade, petiole, and a short piece of the stem with the attached axillary bud. E.g blackberry, camellia.

C) Root Cuttings:

In preparing root cuttings the period when the plant is in rapid growth must be avoided. It is important to maintain the correct polarity when planting the root cuttings. E.g. Guava, pahadi gulab, India cork tree.

Plant Propagation by Layering

Definition:

Layering is the development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. The rooted stem is stem is then detached to become a new plant growing on its own roots. Thus rooted stem stem is known as layer.

Root Formation During Layering is Stimulated by Various Stem Treatments:

1. Bending of shoots to a sharp V shape.

2. Giving a cut or incision of the lower surface of the shoot.

3. Girdling/ by removing a ring of bark or by wrapping copper wire around stem.

Methods:

A)  Simple Layering or Tongue Layering:

In this method a branch is bent to the ground and some portion of it, is covered by soil leaving the terminal and of the branch exposed. Root initiation takes place at the buried portion. After the root initiation. i.e. after allowing sufficient time the layer is separated from the mother plant by cutting the layered shoot. E.g. Guava, jasmine, etc.

B) Compost or Spending Layering: 

Compound layering in essentially the same as simply layering. Except that the branch is alternatively covered and exposed along length. The branch for compound layering must be longer one, so that is can be layered at different place and to branch. This method can be longer one, so that it can be layered at different place and to branch. This method can be followed easily for creepers. E.g.  Guava.

C) Mound Stool Layering:

In this method a plant is cut back at the ground during the dormant season, and soil is covered at the base of the newly developing shoots. After allowing sufficient time for root initiation, the rooted shoots are separated and taken as individual layers.

D) Air Layering:

In air layering, roots, from on an aerial shoots. The rooting medium will be tied to the shoots for getting root initiation. Best rooting medium for air layering is sphagnum- moss as it holds large amounts of water so as to supply moisture to the layered shoot till proper root initiation takes place, (Pomegranate , fig )

 

Grafting

Definition:

Grafting and budding is a art joining two different plant parts together, in such a manner that they unites and continues their growth as simple plant. In case of building single bud is inserted  in to the stock, where as in grafting a bud stick consisting two or more buds is inserted in to the stock.

Stock is a lower portion of the graft union, where as, scion is the upper portion a place at which both unites is termed as scion or graft union.

Graft Incompatibility:

The ability of two different plants when grafted together to produce a successful union and also to develop satiory into one composted plant is termed as ‘Compatibility’. The inability of two different plants to do so when grafted together as often defined as ‘incompatibility; or graft.

Incompatibility:

The distinction between a compatible and incompatible graft union is not clear cut. On one hands, stocks and scions of closely related plats unite readily and grows as one plant.  On the other hands stocks and scions of unrelated plants grafted together are likely to fail completely in union. Much graft combination lie between these extremes viz, compatible to incompatible and therefore the characterization of incompatibility is not distinct.

Incapability may be classified as ‘ Translocated Incompatibility’ and ‘Localized incompatibility ‘.The former type refers those cases in which the incompatible condition cannot be overcome by insertion of a mutually compatible inter stock. This is due to apparently some some label influence moving across it. This type involves phloem degeneration and development of a brown line or necrotic area in the bark.

The second type vig. ‘Localized incompatibility’ includes those combination in which incompatibly reaction apparently depends upon actual contact between stock and scion. Introduction of a mutually compatible inters pick will normally overcome the incompatibility weak with discontinuous in cambium and vascular tissues. A typical example of this kind of incompatibility is that when battle pear is grafted directly on quince stocks, it is incompatible. When old home inter stock is introduces in between those combination, the three parts combination compatible and it grows satisfactory.

In some cases, the stock scion combination grows in an apparently normal fashion for varying periods of times perhaps for many years and them difficulties arises. This is called as delayed incompatibility. A good example of the above phenomenon is the Black lien of walnut, which occur in certain Persian walnut orchards in California and France. When cultivars of tuglen redia are grafted on seeing rootstocks of J.hindsi or Paradox rootstocks. ( J. Hindsil and regia ) the trees grows satisfactorily for 15 to 20 years or even more years of age, thereafter the trouble starts. A thin layer of cambium and phloem and the dead tissues develop at one point and gradually extend around the tree at the graft union until the tree becomes girdled. The vertical width of the dead area may reach 30 cm . Such girdling may kill the plants above the graft union but the stock remains alive and sprout. Another example is that Sapota on Brassica langifolia stocks. Incompatibility is manifested by over growing of scion resulting in produced distortion at the bud joint and the graft dies prematurely.

Symptoms of Incompatibility:

Graft union malformation resulting incompatibility usually expresses the following external symptoms viz.

1. Failure to from a successful graft or bud union with a high percentage of success.

2. Yellowing of leaves in the latter part of the growing season followed by early defoliation accompanied by decline in vegetative growth. Appearance of shoot dies back and general in health of the tree.

3. Premature death of the trees which may live only a year or two in the nursery.

4. Marked difference in the growth rate or vigour of scion and stock.

5. over growth at, above or below the graft union.

Incompatibility has been ensured in swat oranges. Cv. Mosabi when grafted on trifoliate orange. (Citrus maxima).

Why Grafting and Budding

Plant propagation with cottage and leverage is very easy, cheap and economical, however, grafting and budding is necessary because.

1. When other methods are not successful.

2. Adoptability for pest, diseases, tolerance to cold unsuitable climate by using suitable root stock.

3. Converting inferior plants in to superior one e.g. side grafting in mango.

4. To modify the growth of fruit plant. E.g. by using dwarfing rootstocks.

Methods of Grafting

There are several techniques of grafting followed in different plants, suitable in different situation. Adoption of any suitable technique facilities, sources available etc.

A) Scion Attached Methods:

These are the methods of grafting where in the scion is kept attached to the mother plant till the graft union takes place and then the graft is separated in stage taking cuts on scion below the graft union and on root stock above the graft union. This principle is followed in following methods:

i) Simple approach or inarching.

ii) Saddle grafting.

iii) Tongue grafting.

B) Scion Detached Methods:

These are the grafting methods where in the scion is first detached from mother plan then inserted in to root stock so as the union takes place and combination continues to grow. These methods are:

i) Veneer grafting.

ii) Wedge grafting.

iii) Saddle grafting.

iv) Whip and tongue grafting.

v) Whip grafting.

Vi) Softwood grafting.

vi) Stone grafting.

vii) Softwood grafting.

C) Methods of Grafting on Established Trees:

Methods which can be successfully adopted to convert the inferior established plants in to the superior or desired one. These are

i) Side grafting

ii) Crown grafting

iii) Top working.

Top Working is Performed in Three Ways:

a) By inarching the new shoots growing from the cut ends of branched of stock plants.

b) By Forket budding.

c) By crown grafting.

D) Methods of Renovation:

These are the grafting methods which are adopted to rejuvenable the old threes having religious feeling or the plants injured deeply due to mechanical operation, pests disease at their, roots etc.

i) Bridge grafting

ii) Buttress grafting.
 

Budding

Budding is the vegetative method of plant propagation and can be defined as “ an art of insertion of a single mature bud in to the stem of the rootstock in such way that the union takes place and the combination continues to grow. It is grafting of a single individual bud instead of whole bud stick on scion as in done in case of grafting.

There are several techniques or methods of insertion of bud in to the root stock. The adoption of any of the methods like grafting depends upon the plants to be budded, situation, facilities and source available etc.

Different Techniques of Methods of Budding:

I) Shield Budding:

This is the methods of budding in which a single bud with a little wood or without wood is taken but from the scion plant and is given a shape of ‘shield ‘before it is inserted into the root stock. It is done in following three ways: shield budding by ‘ T’ methods.

A. Shield Budding by T method:

i) Selection of Bud Wood or Bud Stock:

Fairly well matured, round bud stick of pencil thickness and of pest season’s growth, brownish color, having dormant plumy buds is selected from the desired tree. It must in sap following condition. The leaves are removed from the bud to avoid injurities to the axillary buds.

ii) Selection of Stock Plant:

Vigorous growing root stock seedling with pencil thickness having height of about 1 ½ to 2 feet is selected. The seedling should be in free sap flowing condition.

iii) Removal of Bark from the Stalk Plant:

on selected seedling ( root stock ) at the height of about ( 1 ½ inches to 2 inches from ground level ) vertical cut followed by a horizontal cut across the top at right angle is made carefully with budding knife. The cuts may be depending upon the wood.

iv) Removal of Bud:

From the selected bud stick a plumpy  bud is taken out carefully with wood by taking a v  ½ inch below the bud . The wood is then removed from the bud along with portion of bark is given a shape like shield.

V) Inserting the Bud:

The flaps of bark on either sides of the cut on the stock plant are loosened with very portion of budding knife. And kept ready to receive bud. The bud is then inserted from the top  of the cut and pushed downward beneath the bark, and is held in position.

vi) Bandaging :

To bring about a firm cambial contact, the operated portion is tied with banana spot  or polythene strip keeping the growing point of bud exposed.

Under the normal condition union taken in about 5 weeks. After the successful union, the bud sprouts or new shoots comes out and bud grows vigorously. The portion of stalk above the union is then cut off step by step and bandage is removed. When the new shoots develop at its vigorous and the bud graft is hardened in the nursery for 6 to 8 months, it becomes ready for permanent plantation.

B) Shield Budding by ‘I’ Method:

It is adopted where a great deal of rains occur. Water running down the stem of the root stock. After in case of the ‘ T’ cut soaks under the bud and causes decay of the shield piece of bud. Under such condition and ‘inverted’ T budding may give better results, since it is more likely to the below the bark inform running water.
The technique required in this method is same as that in T method except that the incision on the stock has the transceivers ( cross ) is taken on root stock and it is bent so that the bark become loose. Then the bud is inserted and tied firmly with sutali. Union takes place within two to three weeks.

C) Simple Shield Budding by Insertion Method:

A simple length wise incision ( cut ) is taken on root stock and it is bent so that the bark become loose. Then the bud is inserted and tied firmly with sutali. Union takes place within two to three weeks.

II) Patch Budding: (Mango):

Patch budding is somewhat slower and more difficult to perform than T budding. But is widely and successfully used on the plants which got thick bark. The patch of bark is removed from the stem of the root stock. Then the patch of bud of exactly the same size is removed from the bud stock taken from desired tree and fitted on the root stock exposed area. Polythene film is tied to protect same. Separating and October are considerable to rather most suitable months for patch budding in mango.

III) Flute Budding:

This method makes use of the ring of tissues adjoin the bud relatively thick barked tree thicker than 1 cm. and in active stage of are commonly budded by this method. It is successfully used in Ber and Cashewnunt trees.

On the bark of root stock two horizontal cuts about ‘1 ½ to 2’ apart are made to the extent of about 3/ 4 of the diameter of the stem. Vertical cuts connecting the horizontals cuts at both the ends are mode and semi circular bark is removed. The scion is prepared by repeating the same methods on the bud stack and the bud accompanying with flute of bark is placed against the corresponding cut portion of the stock. After this typing is attended in usual ways. All other operation are also similar to those in shield budding.

IV) Ring Budding:

The nature and method rendered its usefulness only to small stocks of not more than ¾ to 1 diameter. This is more or less an extension of flute method. Budding operation is performed when the plant is in sap flowing condition. A complete (1 ½ to 2) ring of bark is removed around the stem of the stock in order to from matrix. A complete ring of bark of the same with a prominent, plumy, healthy bud is removed from bud stick when placed on stock; it extends all around the stock. After placing the ring in position typing is done in usual manner, failure of the bud to unite, result in loss of terminal portion of stock above the ringed portion.

G) Forket Budding:

In Maharashtra state a fair degree of success has been achieved in mango by this method.  The favorable season for operation is July to sept.

The selection of the bud sticks as well as the root stock is the same as that in the shield budding. At the height of about 9 to12 from the ground level horizontal cut is taken on the root stock and then two vertical cuts from the either end of the horizontal cut extending downwards are taken and a flap of bark is pooled out exposing a rectangular portion of about 1 to 2 on the root stock. A rectangular piece of bark along with a matured primly bud, of the same size, ( 1 *2 ) is removed from the selected bud stick. This piece of bark is then fitted on the exposed portion on root stock and secured well. The panel of bark is then released to its original position and tied by sutali is done in a usual way. The manuring, watering of the root stock is carried out as and when required.

After about 15 days the bandage is removed. The panel of bark is pooled out again and the inside is observed. If the bud shown the sign of sprouting, the panel of bark is removed by taking horizontal incision the downside of its on the root stock and the bud is again bandage, keeping exposed the growing  point in a usual way. If the bud does not show the sign of sprouting the panel of bark is released to its original position and bandage is done in a usual way.  After 15 days same procedure is followed.

Within 3 to 5 weeks from the operation the buds sprouts. When the shoot coming from the bud grows vigorously the terminal shoot of the root stock is removed or cut off in two to three steps as is deon in the case of shield budding. The after cases are the same as those are in case of the methods.

Formation of Graft Union:

i) Freshly cut scion tissue is brought into intimate with freshly cut rootstock tissue in such a manner that the regions of each are in close proximity. Temperature and humidity condition must be such as to promote activity in the newly be posed and surrounding cells. Temperature I n the range of activity in the range of 45 to 90 would be conductive to rapid growth. The spring months are usually favorable when cambium region of the graft union should be kept at a high level so that the thin- walled, turgid parenchymatous cells may not desiccated and dried.

ii) The outer exposed layers or cells in the cambia region or both scion and stock, parenchymatous cells in the soon intermingle and interlock this is commonly called as callus tissue. In grafting scion on the established stocks, the stock produces most of the callus, taking major part in filling up the gaps between the components. These parenchymatous cells, composting the spongy callus tissue fill the space between the two components or stock and scion, becoming interlocks and providing some mechanical support as well as allowing for soak passage of water and nutrients from the stock into the scion.

iii) Certain cells of the newly formed callus which are in line with the cambium layer of the intact scion differentiated into new cambium cells.

iv) These new cambium cells produce new vascular tissue, xylem, towards the inside and phloem wares the outside, thus establishing a vascular connection between the scion and rootstock, a requisite for a successful graft union, the newly formed camila sheath in the callus bridge begins typical cambium activity, layering own new xylem and phloem along with original vascular cambium of the stock and the scion, on through the life of the plant.

The new production of xylem and phloem and the establishment or vascular connection between the scion and stock must occur before much new shoot growth takes place from buds on the scion, otherwise the enlarging leaf surface on the scions will have little or no water supply to offset the loss by transpiration and the scion will quickly desiccated and die.

Use of Rootstock in Fruit Crops

A grafted or budded plant can produce usual patterns which may be different from what would have occupied if each component part of graft age viz. root stock and scion were grown separately or when it is grafted or budded in other types of rootstock. Some of these have major horticulture valve. This very inspect of rootstock in the performance of a scion cultivator or vice versa is known as stock scion relationships.

A) Effect of Stock on Scion Cultivates:

1. Size and Growth Habit:

In apple, rootstock can be classified as dwarf, semi dwarf vigorous and very vigorous rootstock based on their effect on a scion cultivator. If a scion is drafted on dwarf rootstock the graft combination will be dwarf while he same cultivar grafted on very rootstock would grow very vigorously. In citrus, trifoliate oranges.  On the other hans, in mango all plants of a given variety are known to have the same characteristic canopy shape of the variety despite the rootstocks being of seedling origin. But recently, rootstock of kakarady, olour have been found to impart dwarfness in the scion cultivators. Guava cultivars grafted on psidium puminum are found to be dwarf in statue.

2. Precocity in Flowering and Fructing:

The time taken from plating to fruiting precocity) is influenced by rootstocks. Generally fructing is influenced by rootstocks. Generally fruiting precocity is is associated with dwarfing rootstocks and slowness to start fruiting with vigorous rootstocks. Mandarins, when grafted on Jamberi rootstock are precious than those grafted on sweet orange or sour orange or acid lime rootstock.

3. Fruit Set and Yield:

The rootstock directly influence on the production of flowers and setting fruit in oriental persimmon ( diospyrous kakij cv. Hichiya ). When it is grafted on D. Lotus I products more flowers but few only mature but when D. Kakij is used as the rootstock, the set is more.

The influenced of rootstock on the yield performance or cultivar has been well documented in many fruit crops. Acid limes budded on rough lemon register nearly 70 percent increased yield than those budded on troyer citrange, Rampur lime or its own rootstock. Sweet orange var. satngdi budded on kichili rootstock rootstock gave higher yield than on Jamberi or on its own seeding (South India).

4. Fruit Size and Quality:

Sathgudi sweet oranges grafted on gjanimma rootstock produced large but poor quality fruit, while on its own roots they produced fruit with high juice content and quality. The physiological disorder ‘granulation’ in sweet orange is very low of grafted on Cleopatra mandarin seedling, on their hand rough lemon seedling, stocks induced maximum granulation. The physiological disorder ‘black end ‘in Barlett Pear did not appear if Pyrus Communis was used as the rootstock Ehen P. pyrisfolia was used as the rootstock. This disorder appeared, affecting fruit quality.

5. Nutrient Status of Scion:

Rootstocks do influence the nutrient status of scion also. Sathgudi sweet oranges trees have a better nutrient in the leaves when on it’s budded on C. volkarminriana rootstock than on its own rootstock or Cleopatra mandarin stocks.

6. Winter Hardiness:

Young grape fruit tree on Rangpur lime withstand winter injury better than on rough lemon or sour on orange. Sweet orange and Mandarins on trifoliate were more cold hardy.

7. Diseases Resistance:

In citrus considerable variability exists among the rootstock in their response to diseases and nematodes. For instance rough lemon rootstock is tolerate to tristeasa, xyloprosis and exocorita  is tolerant to gummosis but susceptible to exocorita  virus disease. Similarly guava varieties grafted on chinse Guava, resist wilt diseases and nematodes.

8. Ability to Resist Soil Adverse Conditions:

Among the citrus rootstocks trifoliate orange exhibits poor ability to resist excess soil moisture or excess boron in the soil. Myroblam plum rootstock generally viz, peach, appreciator almond.

B) Effect of Scion on Root Stock:

1. Effect on Root System of Stock:

In apple it has been found that if apple seedling were budded with the “Red Astrochan “apple the rootstock produced a very fibrous root system with few top roots. On the other hand, if scion cultivar is less vigorous than the rootstock cultivar the rate growth and the dry ultimate size of the tree is more determinate by the scion rather the rootstock.

2. Cold Hardiness of the Rootstock:

Cold hardiness of citrus roots is affected by the scion cultivar. Sour orange seedling budded to ‘Eureka ‘lemon suffered much more from winter injury than the unbudded seedlings.

3. Age of Root Stock Seedling:

Young mango rootstock seedling (6 month to one year old ) were found to put forth inflorescence when the branches from old trees are inarched which will be attributed to the influence of scion on the rootstock.

I) Incompatibility:

Certain rootstock and scions are incompatible; therefore, the graft union between these two will not normally take place.

2. Kind of Plant:

Some species like oats are difficult to graft but apple and pears are very easy in predicting a successful graft union.

3. Environmental Factor During and Following Grafting:

There are certain environment al requirements which must be met for callus tissue to develop and heal the graft union.

a) Temperature has a pronounced effect on the production of callus tissues. An optimum temperature as essential for the production of callus tissue. In most of the temperature fruit crops callus production is retarded after 100 0 F.

b) Relative humidity must be high or maintaining a film of water against the callusing surface is essential to prevent these delicate thin walled parenchymatous calls from drying.

c) Presence of high Oxygen content near this surface is essential.

4. Growth Activity of Stock Plants:

Some propagation methods such as “T “ budding and bark grafting depend upon the bark grafting depend upon the bark ‘spipping’ which means the cambila cells activity dividing and producing young thin walled cells on the side of the cambium. These newly formed cells separating readily from one another as the book slips.

5. Propagation Techniques:

Sometimes the technique used in grafting is so poor that only a small portion of the causal regions of the stock and scion are brought together. This measurement in its failure of the graft union.
 

Methods of Applying Manures

The methods of applying manures would depend on the type of manure, i.e.

i) Bulky manures and

ii) Concentrated manures.

Bulky manures like F.Y.M. should be broadcast over the entire area and mixed well with the soil by harrowing. The season of application should be such that the manure is not leached out. In heavy rainfall areas, the manures may be applied after the monsoon; whereas in light rainfall areas, manures can be monsoon.

The Concentrated Manures include organic manures such as oil cakes, blood meal etc. The nutrients in the manures are not available quickly, as they have to be broken down by the action of soil microorganisms and made available to the plant hence, these manures should be applied well in advance before they are required by the trees.

Inorganic fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate urea, super phosphate, muriate of potash etc. are referred to as artificial manures. Nitrogenous manures include ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, urea, etc. Nitrogen in nitrate form is easily available to the plant but the nitrogen in ammonia form takes 10 to 15 days for becoming available to the plant. Fertilizers containing nitrogen may be applied in a round strip along the drip of the tree. A light irrigation to dissolve the fertilizer may be given.

Phosphorus, when applied to the soil, gets fixed up at the spot where it is applied even if plenty of water is present in the soil, and as such, the application of phosphorus should be made near the roots so as to make it readily available to the plant. In plants having superficial roots, phosphates may be applied in top 5 to 7.5 cm layer. In case of plants having their feeding roots deep as in mango, a trench round the drip of the branches about 15 to 25 cm deep should be dug and phosphates applied in that trench and trench filled in.

Potash, like nitrogen is readily soluble and is easily available to the plant and, as such, the method of application of potash is similar to that of nitrogen.

Irrigation Methods for Horticultural Crops

Methods of Irrigation:

The amount of water to be applied to crops depends on different factors. Different systems of irrigation are practiced for garden crops.

1. Flood System:

When the land is flat, the entire area is flooded by letting in water. This system is commonly practiced in canal or tankard areas, in wet lands for banana, and other crops. This is a water method as the water is supplied in excessive quantity. The entire area is allowed_to_saturate with water and the interval between two irrigations is kept fairly long. It also causes stagnation is shallow and ill drained soils.

2. Basin System:

This system is widely practiced on large scale all over the/world. A basin is a small patch or land bounded around a tree. It is usually a square with the tree in the centre. The soil gradually slopes down from, the base of the tree to the edge of tile basin, resulting in a trough. Circular basins are also made sometimes. Water let In from the main water channel first reaches the periphery, soaks the outer area and "gradually spreads towards the trunk, and thus is prevented from coming in contact with the tree trunk. This system is useful for loamy soils.

The basins, initially four feet square; are increased in size as the trees grow, and are gradually extended to even 40 feet square, roughly corresponding to the periphery of the trees. Roots or plants as a rule spread much further than the above ground portion./It is, therefore, necessary to irrigate a wide area to supply adequate moisture to the entire root zone. In very old plantation basins may not be suitable as the root system would have gone far beyond his size of the trees and irrigation of the entire orchard may be necessary. Basin system minimizes loss of water, and is economical.

3. Furrow System:

Furrow system of irrigation is commonly practiced in orchards in Western countries. The entire orchard is ploughed up and divided into furrows. The number of furrows between the rows of trees legends on the age of the plantation. When trees are young, a single furrow is sufficient A furrow is ordinarily about 200 to 300 feet long about 18 inches wide at the top and 6 inches deep, with sloping sides. The size of the furrow varies with the type of soil and slope of the land. Furrow run at right angles to the slope or gradient of the land. When the land is highly slopy the length of the furrow is reduced. Normally, for every. 100 feet of the length of the furrow a six inch gradient of fall is adequate. Furrows are kept hallow so that water may spread quickly all over the area. When furrows are deep the water is likely to be absorbed by deeper layers or the soil and water intake becomes high. Thus by adjusting the depth of furrows, the quantity of water to be applied to crops can be controlled.

4. Ring System:

In this system the water is applied in a ring around the tree. The method is recommended for citrus trees, is in this system the water is not allowed to touch the bark of the tree thereby reducing the chances or coller rot to which the trees are susceptible. The size of thering will increase as the trees grow.

In applying water to crops, care should be taken to see that the optimum quantity is applied at proper interval. The water applied should reach the entire root zone of the tree. For this it is necessary to study the relationship between the spread of trees and root penetration.

Cultivators usually guide the entire quantity of water from their well into main (one) channel and take it round each tree or sub - plot. Due to a large quantity of water rushing in a small channel, there is severe, erosion. Frequently, the sides of the channel break away and the rushing water erodes the soil. The water travels at a much faster rate horizontally than vertically. As a result of the quick flow of water, its penetration into the sub soil is poor. The water remains only on the surface and dries of quickly due to insufficient penetration into the soil. When the flow of water is fast, much vigilance and labour is necessary in guiding the water. This system is therefore, uneconomical and harmful.

Water has; therefore, to be applied to crops with a gentle flow so that it percolates deep into the soil rather than flow off superfluously. This will minimize loss or water and allow penetration to the root zone of plants. This is possible by using the furrow system of irrigation.

5. Border Strip or Modified Furrow System:

A better system of irrigation is the modified furrow system. Water is applied from one main channel simultaneously into several furrows. It is let out first in a main feeder channel where it rises up and flows uniformly into all the furrows at the same aped A good initial preparation of land is necessary. The land should be perfectly leveled with a gently slope.

In this system, water penetrates quickly into the deeper layers the horizontal movement is slow. There is thus deep penetration of water into the entire root zone of the crop. Erosion is almost eliminated due to slow flow of water supervision is easy, the main feeder or head channel alone has to be regulated and this saves considerable amount of labour.

Cause of Fruit Drop

1) Mechanical Causes:

Wind and hailstorm cause’s fruit drop.

2) Climatic Factor:

Climatic factors such as high temperature low humidity very low temperature, hasten the formation of abscission layer in the fruit stalk.

3) Physiological Factors:

Lack of available nitrogen and similar other nutritional factors may cause fruit drop. Fruit drops from weak shoots is more than from strong ones.

5) Pathological Factors:

Attack of pest and diseases will increase fruit drop.

6) Cultural Practices:

Deep ploughing during fruit development stage, excessive irrigation resulting bed aeration in soils lead to drop of fruits.

7) Varietal Factors:

Within a kind of fruit, the varieties differ among themselves in the extent of fruit drop.

8) Other Factors:

The shed is more of seedless fruits than of seeded ones. It is also said that cross pollinated fruits keep better on the tree than self pollinated fruits.

Younger plant shed more fruits than older ones probably owing to lack of nutritional reserves.

Definitions in Ornamental Horticulture

1. Cut Flower: Cut flowers are fresh flower harvested in clusters / spike or in single along with their stem.

2. Economic Flowers: Economical flowers are those flower crops which are grown on a commercial scale as field crops in certain selected areas of the State for large supply of flowers to market.

3. Loose Flowers: The flowers which are usually harvested without stalk and used for Gajara, Veni and Garland.

4. Floriculture: It is a aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with growing, selling designing and arranging flowers and foliage plant.

5. Commercial Floriculture:This branch deals with the cultivation of economic flowers like Rose, Jasmines, Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus, Tuberose etc. production of cut flowers and gift plants.

6. Vase Life of Flowers: How long the flowers kept in the containers remain fresh is referred as vase life of flowers.

7. Landscape Gardening: It consists of planning and arrangement of home gardens. Public garden for bio - aesthetic purpose.

8. Ornamenatl Horticulure: It refers to the study of various groups of ornamental plants which are used to decorate in door and out door gardens.

9. Bio - aesthetic Planning: It refers to the proper utilization of the available flora and fauna in the beautification of the surroundings.

10. Photo Period: The duration of light during the course of day is called as photo period.

11. Long Day Plant: The plants which require long light period combined with short dark period to form flower bud and temed as Long day plants e.g. China aster, Calendula.

12. Short Day Plants:
The plants which need short light periods combined with long dark periods to form flower bud is known as Short day plants e.g. Cosmos, Chrysanthemum.

13. Day Neutral Plant:
The plants which flower any time irrespective of the number of dark or light period are known as day neutral plant e.g. Tuberose, Carnation, Dianthus etc.

14. Aroid:
A plant belonging to the Arum Family and including anthuriums, diefTenbachias, monsteras and philodendrons.

15. Corm:
A specialized underground organ consisting of an»enlarged stem axis with distinct nodes and intemodes and enclosed by dry, sale leaves.

16. Bulb:
A specialized underground plant organ consisting of a greatly reduced stem (basal plate) surrounding by fleshy, modified leaves called scales.

17. Bract:
Modified leaf, often brightly coloured, which subtends a flower, or which enfolds an inflorescence.

18. Rhizome:
A rhizome is a subterranean sfem that arises from a lateral bud from the main stem at ground level and extends underground near the surface-horizontally.

19. Tubers:
Tubers are short.thickened parts of subterranean branches, which store large quantities of plant food, mainly starch. Tubers contain buds in the axils of the reduced leaves.

20. Sucker:
Some plants have capacity to produce new stems from the adventitious buds formed on their roots, such new growth are called suckers. Stem suckers are also produced from the base of the stem from below (he ground

Principal of Designing a Garden

A garden may be defined as An area embellished with plants, a valuable and pleasui^able adjunct to a house.

A mere collection of plants will not make a garden. It is the skilltul arrangement and disposition of plants over the area making a design or pattern or picture as it were that forms a garden. Therefore, gardening warrants apart from a knowledge pf the Science of Plant growing, an artistic aste on the part of the gardener.
Before planning a design one must be used for what purpose the garden is Utility or Beauty or Both.

Initial Approach of Designing a Garden:

In theory, everyone would like to have a perfect plot of land, but in actual practice the plot available for gardening, in three out of five cases, either will not be in a good site or the shape and size will not be ideal. Whatever, may be the case, one should not throw one's hands up in despair even if the site appears to be not so good. A good designer is orte who will make best use of such a site-. As has already been stated, land with natural undulations should never be leveled, but rather the. differences in levels should be utilized with advantage.

The other terms and principles used in landscape design are briefly discussed below:

Axis :

This is an imaginary line in any garden around which the garden is created striking a balance. In a formal garden, the central line. is. the axis. At the end of an axis, generally there will be a focal point although another architectural features such as bird-bath or sundial can also be created at about the mid point,

Fwral Point:

In every garden there is a center of attraction which is generally an architectural feature focused as a point of interest. A focal point is one of the elements of good landscape design.

Mass Effect:

The use of one general form of plant material in large numbers in one place is done to have mass effect To see that mass airangements do not become monotonous, the sizes of masses should be varied.

Unity:

Unity in a garden is very important as when this is achieved it will improve the artistic look of the garden. Unity has to be achieved from various angles.

First, the unity of style^ feeling, and function between the house and the garden has to be achieved

Secondly, the different components of the gardens should merge harmoniously with each other. The aim is to give the visitor an overall impression of the garden rather than blowing up some special features.

The last point, which is also very important, is to achieve some harmony between the landscape outside and the garden.

Space:

The aim of every garden design should be such that the garden should appear larger than its actual size. One way of achieving this is to keep vast open spaces, preferably under lawn and restrict the plantings in the periphery, normally avoiding
any planting in the center.

Divisional Lines:

In a landscape garden, there should not be any hard and fast divisions] lines. But there is necessity of dividing or rather screening a compost pit or a mali's quarter or a vegetable garden from the rest of the garden, [n fact areas under lawn, gravel, stpne or cement path, and shrubbery border have their natural divisional lines from its immediate neighbour though these are not discreet. This is what is exactly needed. The divisional lines should be artistic with gentle curves and these should also be useful. Above all these lines should be harmonize with one another.

Proportion and Scale:

Proportion in a garden may be defined as a definite relationship between masses.

For example a rectangle having a ratio of 5:8 is considered to be of pleasing proportion. As this ratio comes down the form looks neither in square nor a rectangle, and the design becomes undesirable.

Texture:

The surface character of a garden unit is referred to as texture. The texture of the ground, the leaves of a tree or shrub will all determine the overall effect of the garden. The texture of rugged looking ground can be improved to an appreciable extent by laying metaculously chosen small pebbles from fee river beds, if establishing a lawn is out of the question.

Time and Light:

In a garden the time factor is very important There are three different categories of time in a garden.

First comes the dally time, which provides different quantities and qualities of light during the course of the day. As the morning Sun is vital for all flowers, the designer has to take this into account while planning.

Tone and Colour :

A tendency on the part of an amateur gardner is to create a riot of colours by indiscriminately planting flowering annuals of all shades. This practice is not desirable. Moreover, such riot of colours has only temporary effect. In a landscape garden, the permanent backdrop is the green tones of the various trees and shrubs. It is possible to lay out a garden with subtle tone of the entirely white or yellow flowers, but at the same time making it charming also. Another important point is that it is better to have masses of a single colour against a mixture of colours. A bed of roses containing only a single colour of say red, yellow1 or pink has a much soften tone and beauty than a bed containing a mixture of colours.

Mobility:

In a temperate country, the "garden changes colour very sharply and contrastingly from one season to the other thus symbolizing mobility or movement. As for example, many trees ia the temperate regions attire themselves with wonderful hues due to the changes in their leaf colour in the autumn'. Then suddenly in the winter leaves fall and everything goes to rest bringing an atmosphere of melancholy and dullness-all around

Style:

Lastly, one has to decide about the style to be adopted for one's garden. Broadly speaking, every garden lover has to invent his own style of gardening commensurate with his budget, taste, and the nature of the site.

Types of Garden

There are different types of gardens such as :

1. Home Garden:

The aim is to beautify the area around the house. It includes flower garden and a kitchen garden for the exclusive use of the family.

2. School Garden:

Such gardens are established around the school to beautify the area and also include a nutrition garden for educating children in nutritional importance of fruits and vegetables.

3. Urban Park:

It is a large area of open space organized primarily by landscape meant for recreation of general public. It includes all features such as flower beds, lawns, fountains and children comer. Area varies from 0.5 to 8.0 ha.

4. National Park:

 It is a graden meant for preserving the natural beauty of the area and allow free movement of wild life.

5. Industrial Gardens:

The gardens around the industrial estates and factories. These gardens not only beautify the premises but also help in checking pollution.

6. Arboratum:

The garden is a museum of living plants where propagation of various plants is undertaken and plants are grown for scientific study e.g. Botanical garden, Sibpore, Calcutta. 

Study of Important Flowering Annuals

Annuals are a group of plants which attain full growth from seed, flower and die in one year or one season. Mostly they complete their life history in 3 to 6 months.

They comprise of several of the most beautiful and easily grown plants widely varying in form, habit of growth and colour.

Uses of Annuals:

Annuals find a variety of uses in landscaping:
1. Flower beds of simple design can be laid out on the outskirts of lawn, along the base of buildings, in the path leading to entrance of houses and on sides of footsteps.
2. Certain annuals are useful as edging e.g. Dwarf Marigold, Alyssum and Candytuft.
3. Certain annuals are useful in hanging baskets e.g. Petunia, Verbena and Alyssum.
4. Certain climging annuals are useful to cover trellis work e.g. tall Nasturtium and Cobaca scaridens.
5. Some annuals are useful for massing in beds e.g. Asters; Phlox, Salvia, Zinnia, and Verbena.
6. Few other annuals are useful for planting in shrubberies in vacant spaces; they are Sunflower, Holly hock, tall growing species of Amaranthns, Tithonia etc.
7. They serve as perennial sources of supply of cut flowers for indoor decorations.

Classification of Annuals:

Annuals may Roughly be Grouped as Follows:

a) Rainy season annuals, which can stand more rain than others and therefore, grown to flower during the rainy season. The time for sowing them would-be from April-May in most of the places.
b) Cold season or winter annuals thrive and bloom best during winter. They are sown in September to October.
c) Hot weather annuals which are required for blooming from March to May and are sown in December - January.

Hints in Raising Flowering Annuals:

1. Sow the seeds in seed pan or raised beds. Thin sowing is necessary to get good sized vigorous seedlings. In the seed pan, a pot mixture consisting of two parts of well sifted soil, two parts of leaf mould and one part of sand may be used.
2. Fine seeds may be mixed with 3 to 4 parts of sand before sowing.
3. Annuals which do not stand transplanting like Calendula and Antirrhinum are sown  broadcast in beds.
4. Watering the nursery may be done with rose can.
5. After the seeds germinate completely, then out over crowded seedlings.
6. As transplanting often results in heavy casualities the seedlings are pricked before transplanting. Pricking is the practice of transplanting young seedlings into small pots individually or in the nursery beds with richer soil giving wider space (10-13 cm), pricking is normally done when the seedlings are produced 2-4 leaves. This helps to increase the fibrous root system and to develop vigorous plants.
7. One month after planting when the seedlings have produced six to eight leaves, they can be transplanted into main bed.
8.  Generally a spacing of 30 x 30 cm may be given for most of the annuals.
9. Tall growing annuals like Hollyhock may be providea with stakes.
10.Pinch off the terminal buds of seedlings after they establish and when they are about 25 to 30 cm high. This encourages lateral growth and a more bushy shape.
A description of some of the commonly grown annuals are as follows :

i) Summer and Rainy Season Annuals:

1. Amaranthus:

90-120 cm, tall, ornamental foliage. Requires sunny situation. Bears dropping spikes of white or crimson colour.
2. Balsam (Jmpaliens balsam in a} : 20-60 cm gall bearing single or double flowers of  varying colours.
3. Celosia argentea (Cocks comb) : 25-30 cm tall. The flowers are feathery of various colours, yellow, red, orange.
4. Gaillardia pit left ella : 40-45 cm tall.   The flowers are large, single or double, of various colours such as yellow, lemon yellow etc.
5. Gomphrena globosa : 30-50 cm tall, flowers are button like in shades of white, orange etc. Useful as cut flowers.
6. Cosmos bipinnatus : 90-150 cm height; flowers white, pink, yellow, can be grown throughout the year.
7. Dahlia veriabilis : 90-150 cm height; flowers white, pink, crimson etc; useful for beds and pots.
8. Althaea rosea (Hollyhock) ; 120-180 cm height; flowers of various colours.
9. Tage/ea patitla (Marigold) : 30-40 cm height, red, orange yellow flowers.
10. Hetianthus attnus (Sunflower) : In all varieties (150-180 cm) flowers rotate with the Sun movement. The flowers are big and yellow.
11. Zinnia elegans (Zinnia) : 80-120 cm height; flowers white, red, pink colours.
12. Helichiysum bracteaturn (Straw flower) : 50-80 cm height, bear ever lasting flowers, flower colour silvery white, rich yellow.
13. Petunia hybrids : .20-45 cm height; flowers trumpt shaped, colour of flowers pink, red pale blue.
14. Salvia sptendens (Salvia) :   60-90 cm height; flowers are terminal spikes with tubular scarlet flowers.

ii) Winter Season Annuals:

1. Antirrhinum majus (Snapdragon) : 30-90 cm height; numerous spikes of crimson and white colour.
2. Callistephus chiftsnsis (Aster) :   40-50 cm height, colour of flowers white, pink, blue. Useful as a commercial crop.
3. Calendula officinalis:   40-50 cm height; colour of flower yellow, orange, good for cut flowers.
4. Iberis amara (Caijdy tuft) : 30-40 cm height; flowers pink, white.
5. Dianthus caryophyllus (Carnation) : 45-75 cm height, flowers white, pink, yellow colour. Long vase life. Useful for cut flowers.
6. Centaurea cyan us (Corn flower) : 90-»100 height,-colour of flowers while, pink, blue.
7. Delphinium ajacis (Larkspur) : 45-150 cm height; colour of flowers white, pink crimson. Useful for cut flowers.
8. Atyssum marltimum (Sweet aiyssum) : 10-30 cm height; flowers colour is white.
9. Centaurea moschata (Sweet sultan) : 90-100 cm height, white, yellow scented flowers. Useful for cut flowers.
10. Lythyrus odoratus (Sweet pea) : 90-150 cm height, white, pink, orange scented flowers.
11. Viola tricolour (Pansy): 25-30 cm height; colour of the flowers is yellow, blue, red.
12. Senecio cruentus: 25-45 cm height, colour of flower blue, purple.
13. Tropaeolum majus (Nasturtium) :   30-45 cm height.   Colour of flowers yellow, orange red, Grosn in rockeries.
14. Verbena hybrida ; 25-45 cm height. Purple, pink. Blue coloured flowers.
15. Papaver rhoeas (Poppy) : 60-75 cm height, flower colour scarlet, red, white, purpoel
15. Phlox drummondil : 30-50 cm height; colour of flowers white, red, blue. It can be grown in baskets, pots.

Study of Important Flowering Biennials

Biennials:

Biennials are plants which grow in one season, flower, fruit and die in the next season. Generally, the period of growth is 6 to 9 months. Biennials are grown in the same way as annuals and put to similar uses.

Examples of biennials are Canterbuny bulb, Scabiosa, Gladiolus etc.

Study of Important Flowering Perennials

Herbaceious Perennials:

Herbaceous perennials are those perennial plants with soft succulent stems (as compared to shrubs which have woody stems).  They are propagated by seed cuttings, off set and slips. They are useful as herbaceous or mixed borders or for pot culture.

The following are the examples for herbaceous perennials.

1. Chrysanthemum:

Flowers are single or double available in attractive colours. Perennials species includeC. Jrutescens and C. maximum and its varieties. Propagated easily by suckers.

2. Michaelmas Daisy:

Aster amellus, called also as perennial asters. Flowers are single widi white, rose, blue, lilac and purple colours. Easily propagated by division of the clumps and occasionally from seed. They thrive best in the cold and the rainy seasons.

3. Solidago:

Popularly known- as golden rods producing erect feathery rod-like trusses crowded with pretty golden yellow flowers. They are suitable for mass planting in beds and borders in and adjoining lawn.

4. Cerbera:

Stemless perennial herbs with radical stalked leaves, flower heads are solitary, large and sterile with varying colours. Propagation by divion of clumps or from seed.
All the above four plants belong to the Family : Compositae.

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

The importance of trees in gardening has already been pointed out These three types of plants form an important component of any garden.

Trees:

These are perennial, tall with marked trunk and grow for several years. From historical times, trees are planted along road side to provide shade to travellers. The trees have immense beauty from aesthetic point of view.

Shrubs:

These are important in a garden as they produce beautiful fragrant flowers. Non flowering handsome foliage shrubs produce pleasing effect. The four important purposes of growing shrubs in a garden are:

1. Surrounding beauty is improved.
2. Provide liveness to the garden and act as garden boundary wall.
3. Can be used for screening purposes to hide manure pits and dustbins.
4. Can be planted to divide the area of the garden.

Climbers:

A group of plants with weak stems and ability to climb up the support with help of modified organs.

The climbers, which bear beautiful flowers with fragrance, add beauty and colour to the garden. Artificial structures such as walls', arches, pergolas, pillars etc. are well decorated with the help of climbers.

Planting and Maintenance of Trees, Shrubs and Climbers:

For planting pits of 60 x 60 cm should be dug. Soil should be mixed with 10-15 kg well rotten FYM, 20-25 gm bone meal and 10 gm BHC and pit filled with this mixture. Pit should be watered- Best period is rainy season. The plant should be planted in the center of the pit. Soil should be well pressed. The plant should be stalked. Trees planted along the road side, with adequate protection, and should receive regular water.

What is Vegetable and Difference between Fruits and Vegetables

Vegetable:

Any part of crop consumed as fresh or after cooking is called as "vegetable". Still definition is incomplete. There cannot be any single definition covering all characteristics.

Difference between Fruits and Vegetables:

Following are important differences between fruits and vegetables:

1. In case of fruits only flower or fruit is consumed While in vegetable all parts from roots to fruits are consumed (roots / leaves / stem / flower / fruit / seed / buds).

2. Fruits are consumed a fresh without cooking eg. Banana, apple, guava while vegetables are consumed a fresh as salad and also after cooking few are eaten both way fresh and after cooking eg. Tomato, onion, cucumber. etc.

3. Biennial Fruits are perennial and woody in nature with exception that some are annual and biennial and e.g. papaya, banana, while majority of vegetables are annual while few are biennial (onion, Cole crops, root crops) and few perennial (asparagus, parwal, tondali, hadga, drumstick).

4. Orchard management: Tranning, pruning and certain specific operations are performed in fruit crops and not in gegetable crops.

5. Fruit crops are mostly propagated by vegetative method except papaya, phalsa, Coconut and kagzi lime which are propagated by seed while majority of vegetable crops are propagated by seed with exception of tondali aspaaragus, sweet potato, parwal, potato.

Importance of Vegetables

1) Nutrition:

Vegetables are rich and comparatively cheaper source of vitamins. Consumption of these items provides taste, palatability, increases appetite and provides fiber for digestion and to prevent constipation. Their consumption in plenty fair amount of protein. They also play key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of pretentious and fatty foods and also provide valuable roughages which help in movement of food in intestine.

Some of the vegetables are good sources of carbohydrates (leguminous vegetables, sweet potato, potato, onion, garlic and methi) proteins (peas, beams, leafy vegetables and garlic) vitamin A (carrot, tomato, drumstick, leafy vegetables), Vitamin B (peas, garlic and tomato), Vitamin C (green chillies, drumstick leaves, Cole crops, leafy vegetables and leaves of radish) minerals (leafy vegetables, drumstick pods). As per dietician, daily requirement of vegetables is 75 - 125 g of green leafy vegetables, 85 g of other vegetables and 85 g of roots and tubers with other food.

2) Importance as Food:

Food production is increasing. If is essential to sustain increased production besides nutritional standard of people. It can be increased by increasing production of vegetables which will help to solve food problem as yield of vegetable crops is 4 to 10 times more than cereals. Thus, vegetables play a vital role on food front as they are cheapest-sources of natural foods and can admirably supplement the main cereals of the country.

3) Importance to a grower:

Nature is in providing us-with all kinds of vegetable crops that can be grown in different seasons of the year in region. Different kinds of vegetables provide leaf, stem, flower, fruit or seed for consumption.' Considering vividness in the requirement of soil and season farmers can grow vegetable crops throughout the year for earning regular and steady income to meet the daily expenditure. There are vegetables of very short duration that can be grown as rained and intercrops in either agronomical crops or vegetable crops. There 'are vegetables which will improve soil and also provide fodder to catties. Thus farmer has wide choice to select suitable crop to adjust in his cropping pattern in given situation. Climate and soil conditions of this region are conducive to grow different vegetables.

4) Employment:

Since cultivation of vegetable crops involve intensive cultural operations starting from sowing to marketing, it provides more and regular employment opportunities in rural areas.

5) Industrial importance:

The perishable nature of vegetables demand comprehensive planning for movement, Storage, processing and distribution of vegetable products. The growth of vegetable industry as a commercial proposition largely depends on mainly allied enterprises like storage, processing marketing and maintenance and service enterprises to encourage vegetable growing.

The value of vegetables as an important article of daily human diet has come to be recognized all over the world in recent years. We get many specific chemical substances needed by our body for growth, reproduction and for maintenance of health. Vegetables contribute vitally to the general well-being due to the following reasons:

1. They are rich sources of 'Protective' elements like minerals, salts, vitamins and other chemical substances, which the human body seeds to maintain good health and cheer.

2. Per acre yield of vegetables is very high.

3. They are an important source of farm income.

4. They have high aesthetic value.

5. More vegetable crops can be raised in one year.

6. Importance of vegetables in farmer's economy.

7. Vegetables are important .source of farm income:

a. Vegetables are sold at a higher rate than other crops. It provides regular as well as good source of income in addition to the income from the agronomic crops.

b. It provides regular work throughout the year to the year to the fanners and his family labours.

c. Per acre yielded vegetables is very high: Vegetables give very high quantity of food per acre and they grow quickly. It is found that vegetables give higher yields in comparison to other crops.

d. More Vegetables can be raised in one year: Most vegetables are short duration crop and it as compared to other crops can be raised throughout the year Some of Vegetables (i.e. potato, brinjal, spinach, pumpkin, lady's finger etc.) can be grown twice and even three a year, some green vegetables become ready for harvesting within 15-60 days of sowing.

6) Importance of vegetables Production for medicinal properties:

Many of the vegetable crops posses high medical value for curing certain diseases. For instance, onion and garlic are found to possess antibacterial property (Sharma et. al. 1976). Many solanaceous and cucurbitaceous vegetables are found to possess Vitamin D.

Problem in Export of Vegetables

1. Inadequate air cargo space.
2. Higher air freight.
3. Restriction in the export. During shortage of crop export is restricted. Thus regular export is stopped.
4. Non- availability suitable variety.
5. Absence of cultivation of suitable crop varieties exclusively for export is fresh for processing.
6. Improper packing of the produce.
7. Vegetables are packed o\in jute (undesirable).
8. Corrugated fiberboard boxes are not of enough strength and damaged in transport.
9. Cold storage facilities at all air ports.
10. In adequate handling space.
11. Inadequate research development back up.
12. No export oriented research programmed are being taken up in vegetables.
13. Quality of vegetables is not uniform.
14. Cost of vegetable washed in shorting and grading.

Vegetable Garden

Vegetable gardening may broadly be divided into four parts on the disposition that is to be made of the products.

1. Home or Kitchen or Amateur Gardening:

 In which the purpose is to raise a supply for the use of family only.

2. Commercial Vegetable Gardening:

This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale for the sale according to the objects sought and the methods employed in producing and disposing of the crops.

This Further Divided into:

1) Market gardening.

2) Truck gardening or farming.

3) Vegetable forcing.

4) Vegetable for processing:

i) Canning

ii) Freezing

iii) Dehydration

iv) Pickling & fermentation

v) Vegetable gardening for seed production

vi) Floating- Veg. garden.

Home or Kitchen Gardening

The main purpose of the kitchen or home vegetable gardening is to provide the family daily with fresh vegetables rich in nutrients and energy. There is lo be a more or less continuous supply of vegetables throughout the year according to the season. !n kitchen gardening emphasis is usually placed on a great variety of crops according to season. Home gardening idea is spreading among more and more housewives due to the increasing awareness among them that just as good placement of shrubs and flowers adds to the beauty of the house-Kinds of Kitchen gardening:

1) A combined flower and vegetable garden.

2) Exclusive vegetable gardens But these are rather less common at least in houses in urban areas. They also vary according to the size of the residential plot, etc.

a) In large size plot almost every important vegetable can be grown in them due to enough space available in the back yard.

b) In medium size plots the area is not enough so that even an assorted collection of vegetables cannot be accommodated.

c) In very small houses - the area available for kitchen garden is also very small, so only a few small beds of vegetables, supplemented with narrow strips here and there are available along the boundary wall, and other locations.

d) Terrace gardening or growing vegetables in pots- In cities and towns where there is little garden space available one can grow vegetables in pots drums and other container; placed on terrace or roof.

Advantages of kitchen gardening:

1) Kitchen gardening is the best means of recreation and exercise. It is an excellent hobby and a healthy occupation in spare time for the young and the aged. According to Venkataratnum (1963) "An hour or two spent either in the morning or evening in kitchen garden provide good exercise to the body and a healthy recreation to the mind.

2) Kitchen gardening helps in lowering down the vegetable bill. There are no transport charges and middlemen's share which greatly add to the price paid by the consumers in purchasing vegetables from the market.

3) According to Dr. Mehta (1959), "It is an ideal medium for training children, through gardens, in beauty and order".

4) Kitchen gardening secures enough vegetables within the means of all classes at a very cheap rate. It is often remarked that it is cheaper to buy vegetables than to raise them.

5) The cost of raising vegetables in the kitchen gardening through ones owns labour is far less than what a family spends on vegetables in the market.

6) Vegetables grown, in the kitchen gardens are fresh and are not liable to infection with germs occurring in unsanitary markets. Thus they can be used freely without any trouble.
  

Market Gardening

It is that branch of vegetable growing whose object is to produce vegetables for the local market. It is one of the most intensive types of vegetable gardening where the most skilful methods for growing of vegetables for commercial purpose are employed. It is developing day by day according to the rise in population for meeting the needs of those persons who have no land. Formerly the market gardens were located near the cities within 16-24 kilometers radius but now-a-days, with the building good roads and the development of automobiles, the area has been extended considerably. Now vegetables are brought to mandates from distant village by trucks.

Due to transport facilities, markets are no longer local. Consumers can get vegetables even from a distance of 500 kilometers in off season. Now-a-days market gardening probably, supplies almost all the vegetables. Timely and proper irrigation facilities good seed, enough fertilizers and manures, abundant labor supply and easy transportation facilities are essential for market gardening. For market gardening crops like cauliflower, tomato, onion, pumpkin and other such vegetables are planted,. Market gardening is developing these days and there is a possibility of specialization in production of vegetables in the regions especially suited to the production some particular vegetables.

Truck Gardening or Farming

It is the method of growing special vegetable crops in relatively large quantities for distant markets by the employment of intensive methods in this method of gardening there is. Comparatively less intensive cultivation and land values are also lower than market gardening. The development of national highways in India and efficient motor truck facilities is recent years has helped his considerably. Truck farming becomes prosperous in those regions where climate, soil and other factors of production assure better yields than the average, and where labour is cheap. Through truck fanning vegetable surplus in one region can be better disposed of in those areas where there is a shortage of vegetables. Onion from Nasik and green chills from UP. are available in Gwalior during early summer season due to this .Better storage facilities are not available, everywhere in India and this affects considerably the truck gardening.

Vegetable Forcing and Vegetable for Processing

Vegetable Forcing:

It is the method of growing of vegetables out of their normal in sellers, heated buildings, greenhouses, cold farms and under other artificial growing conditions. It is the most intensive type of vegetable growing. Vegetable produced through these, give a very high return, vegetable forcing is not possible because the consumers cannot afford the prices of such vegetables. According to Choudhury (1997) growing of the summer vegetables.\on the river beds during the winter months with the help of organic manure, with breaks of dry grass is also type of forcing. Some times for early product seedlings of crops like tomato or brinjal are forced to germinate in small protected structures. This may also be a type of vegetable forcing.

Vegetable for Processing:

Low cost with high quality and convenience in storage and use, have given rise to vegetable processing in India. But this industry is still not well-developed People also in general, have not yet developed liking for the canned and processed vegetables in India. Still we need vegetables of good quality for canning, dehydration and freezing in our existing factories. Pickling and fermentation also require vegetables. For these also we must grow good vegetables. Vegetables for processing are generally grown around vegetables processing factories, for the regular supply of vegetables to the factories

Classification of Vegetable Crops

There are many numbers of Vegetables. Different parts are used for consumption. They are botanically different and their climatic and cultural requirements are different.

There are four Main Methods of Classification Based on:

1. Education Botanical relation
2. Based on Hardiness (Tolerance to low temp)
3. Parts Used for consumption
4. Methods of Culture

1. Botanical Classification:

This method of classification is based on botanical relationships of crops in responding cytology, morphology, taxonomy and cross ability. This is useful to breaf for crop improvement and seed producer for deciding isolation distance. The cuntroal requirements may vary ex. Solanaceous family includes potato, chili and brampal, There are same cultural requirements. At the same time cucurbitaceous have similar cultural requirements and common pests and diseases. Botanical name avoids infusion in name as common names are different but scientific names are common all over would. It gives information on class, family, genus, species, variety etc Ex. Solanaceous family, Potato, brinjal, chili, cucurbitaceous family: Melons, gourds. Not useful to grower. Thus botanical classification is useful to breeder, seed producer and to avoid confusion in common name.

2. Classification Based on Hardiness:

Vegetables are grouped as hardy or tender on the basis of tolerance to frost, tolerance to lower temperature. This gives information of season of growing i.e. summer or winter. Not useful to grower, since soil and climatic requirements are

Hardy	Semi Hardy	Tender
Asparagus	Beet Root	Okra
Cabbage	Carrot	Brinjal
Garlic	Cauliflower	Tomato / Chili
Onion	Palak	Beans
Peas	Potato	Cucurbit
Radish		Sweet Potato
Spinach		Sweet Potato
Spinach		Amaranthus
Turmp

3) Based on Parts Used for Consumption:

From roots to fruits different parts of vegetables are consumed. On that basis vegetables are classified.

Leafy Vegetable	Palak, Amaranthus Methi (leaves)
Root	Carrot, Radish, Turnip', beet root
Fruit	Tomato, Biinjal; Cucurbit
Bulb	Onion, Garlic
Tuber	Potato, Sweet Potato

4) Based on Method of Culture:

In this method all those crops having similar cultural requirements are grouped together. They" are botanically different. System has practical utility for vegetable grower. In this method one can generalise cultivation practices for one group and thus avoid repetition individually for all crops. There are 11 classes. In some cases they are botanically also similar Ex. cucurbits. On excises for convenience they are grouped as under.

I.	Perennial Vegetable	Asparagus, cocinia (Tondali), Parwal, Drumstick
2	Greens	Spinach
3	Salad Crops	Lettuce, celery
4	Cole Crops	Cabbage, Cauliflower
5	Bulb Crops	Onion, Garlic
6	Root Crops	Carrot / radish, turnip
7	Tuber	a) Potato, b)   Sweet Potato
8.	Peas & Beans	Cluster bean, cowpea, Dolichas
9	Solanaceous	Tomato, Brinjal, Chili,
10	Cucurbits	Watermelon, pumpkin, gourds, Cucumber etc.
11	Okra	Okra